In Ireland, Citizens’ Assemblies are a mechanism used by the Oireachtas (parliament) to involve members of the general public in helping it respond to important constitutional, legal or policy questions.
Since 2012, the Oireachtas has established a series of Citizens’ Assembly-style initiatives. The first was known as the ‘Convention on the Constitution’, while subsequent initiatives have been referred to as ‘Citizens’ Assemblies ’.
Each Assembly brings together a group of randomly-selected members of the public to learn about and deliberate on specific issues. The demographic profile of each Citizen’s Assembly is intended to broadly reflect that of wider Irish society (meaning it is an example of a ‘mini-public’). The Citizens’ Assembly includes women and men from all age groups, walks of life and different parts of the country,
Citizens’ Assemblies are modelled on the basic principles of ‘deliberative democracy’, and operate under a set of rules and procedures that ensures that Members deliberate carefully on the issues in front of them. Citizens’ Assemblies seek to listen to authoritative evidence from experts, and diverse perspectives from stakeholders and the wider public. Members are also asked to consider the experiences in other jurisdictions and to identify examples of good practice.
The heart of the Citizens’ Assembly process is known as ‘deliberation’. This involves members of the Citizens’ Assembly working together in small groups to discuss, debate and reflect on the evidence and perspectives presented to them.
This wide range of inputs is designed to assist the members of the Citizens’ Assembly to weigh up the issues carefully.
Once it has reached its conclusions, the Citizens’ Assembly makes recommendations to the Oireachtas and Government.

As a first step, the Government proposes the establishment of a Citizens’ Assembly. Following debate in the Dáil and Seanad, the Citizens’ Assembly is formally established by the Oireachtas, and given its Terms of Reference.
Once it has been formally established, the Citizens’ Assembly operates completely independently of the Oireachtas and Government.
When a Citizens’ Assembly has concluded its deliberations, it produces a report (or reports), which set out a series of recommendations for the Oireachtas and the Government.
Neither the Government nor the Oireachtas is obliged to accept the recommendations of the Citizens’ Assembly. However, both give an undertaking that they will carefully consider and respond publicly to the recommendations.
Figure 1 illustrates the three phases of the Citizens’ Assembly process.

Three stages of the Citizens’ Assembly

The Citizens’ Assembly works in accordance with its Terms of Reference, which are defined by the Oireachtas. These inform the design of a Work Programme, which helps the Citizens’ Assembly to organise and sequence its meetings.
Each Citizens’ Assembly has an independent Chair, who is nominated by the Taoiseach. The Chair is responsible for the orderly conduct of the Citizens’ Assembly, and can make the casting vote in the event of an otherwise tied vote.
The Chair is supported by a Secretary and Secretariat team, which plans the operation of the Citizens’ Assembly, and supports the members of the Citizens’ Assembly.
The Chair is also supported by a Steering Committee of members, and by advisory groups which can include a range of individuals with expertise and experience of the subject matter.
The Citizens’ Assembly operates according to a set of Guiding Principles and Rules and Procedures, which aim to ensure the proceedings of the Assembly are balanced, fair, respectful and inclusive of diverse perspectives. Deliberation at roundtable discussions is facilitated by a team of professional facilitators and notetakers, who play a crucial role in ensuring the fairness and quality of the deliberative process.
The members of the Citizens’ Assembly meet over a series of weekends to listen to expert evidence, hear from people working in the area, examine submissions from interested parties, engage in debate and deliberation, and vote to determine their recommendations.

Once the Citizens’ Assembly has finished its work, the Secretariat prepares a draft report that sets out the findings and recommendations of the Citizens’ Assembly. The finalised report is then provided to the members of Dáil and Seanad Éireann, and a copy is also provided to the Taoiseach.

Generally, a Committee of the Oireachtas is assigned responsibility to examine the report and recommendations, and provide a detailed response.

Once the Oireachtas Committee has completed its work, the Government also provides a response to the report and recommendations, indicating which of the recommendations it intends to accept, and outlining how it will go about implementing those recommendations.

No. The recommendations from a Citizens’ Assembly are advisory rather than binding. In a representative democracy like Ireland’s, the members of the Oireachtas have the authority to enact legislation; the government has the responsibility of designing and implementing public policy, while the citizens have the authority, exercised through their voting in referendums, to introduce Constitutional change.

While the recommendations of a Citizens’ Assembly are not binding, they do tend to be influential. Both the Oireachtas and the Government commit in advance to responding in detail to the recommendations made by a Citizens’ Assembly, and there is a long track record of Citizens’ Assembly recommendations having a significant impact on policy, legislation and constitutional reform.

Citizens’ Assemblies have proven themselves to be an innovative and effective way to grapple with some of the most complex and divisive questions facing Irish society.

They are now an accepted and valued part of the democratic process, playing an important role not only in informing the political system but in engaging the wider public and stakeholders in debating important issues.

Citizens’ Assemblies have consistently shown that they can make a significant impact on constitutional and social change, as well as on legislation and government policy.

In a broader international context, Ireland is considered to be a leading practitioner of Citizens’ Assembly, and is often referred to as an example of best practice in deliberative democracy.

Each Citizens’ Assembly is made up of members of the general public from around Ireland, who are selected using what is known as a ‘stratified random selection process’ meaning that the demographic profile of the Citizens’ Assembly is broadly representative of wider Irish society, in terms of the age profile, gender and place of residence.

The Citizens’ Assembly can be thought of as a ‘mini-public’. This means that the criteria used to randomly select the members of the Assembly are designed to ensure the group is broadly representative, in demographic terms, of wider Irish society.

Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use – Group photo

The eligibility criteria can vary for each Citizens’ Assembly, depending on the Terms of Reference agreed by the Oireachtas. In general, however, any member of the public aged 18 years and over, who is normally resident in Ireland, is potentially eligible to take part in a Citizens’ Assembly.

However, only people living in households that receive an invitation letter can apply to join the Citizens’ Assembly.

Certain groups, including elected politicians and registered lobbyists, are generally excluded from participating in a Citizens’ Assembly.

No, it is not possible to volunteer or request to take part in a Citizens’ Assembly.

A person can only apply to take part in a Citizens’ Assembly if their household has been randomly selected and has received a letter of invitation.

Yes. The updated recruitment method and eligibility criteria means that a person does not need to be an Irish citizen to take part in the Citizens’ Assembly.

If a person is ordinarily resident in the State, is over the age of 18 years and has received an invitation addressed to their household, they are eligible to apply to join the Citizens’ Assembly.

This helps ensure that the demographic profile of the Citizens’ Assembly is broadly comparable to the wider Irish population, including in terms of the involvement of non-nationals living in Ireland.

The current method of recruiting members for the Citizens’ Assembly is designed to optimise the diversity of the Assembly membership and ensure it is as representative as possible of the general public.

The recruitment method is informed by international best practice, with reference in particular to the OECD Recommendation on Open Government[1] and Good Practice Principles for Deliberative Processes for Public Decision Making[2].

Letters are issued to a random selection of households around Ireland, inviting them to nominate one adult from that household to apply to become a member. Each household that receives an invitation is entitled to nominate just one adult from that household to apply.

Applicants provide key demographic information, which is then used to select members using a stratified random selection process, which ensures that that the overall composition of the assembly broadly mirrors wider Irish society in terms of gender, age, geography, socioeconomic status and nationality. The selection of public members of the Assembly was based on a stratified random selection of 99 members of the public, using six demographic variables:

• Gender
• Age Group
• Place of residence
• Employment status and occupation (proxy indicators for socio-economic status and disability);
• Language (as a proxy indicator of nationality).

Figure 3 shows the geographic distribution of invitees, applicants and members of the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use

Member recruitment – geographic distribution

[1] OECD (2017) https://www.oecd.org/gov/Recommendation-Open-Government-Approved-Council-141217.pdf

[2] Chwalisz, C. (2020), ‘Good practice principles for deliberative processes for public decision making’, in Innovative Citizen Participation and New Democratic Institutions: Catching the Deliberative Wave, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b40aab2a-en.

The invitation letters are specific to particular addresses. If a household has received an invitation, one person (only) in that household can register their interest to be considered for the selection process.

The invitation is not transferable to another address or household, and there are checks in place to verify the validity of applications.

The Citizens’ Assembly is broadly representative of wider Irish society in demographic terms. For example, the report of the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use shows a perfect match between the demographic profile of the members and that of the wider public.

Figure 4 Gender profile of members of the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use

Figure 5 Age profile of members of the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use

Figure 6 Geographic profile of members of the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use

For the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use, in addition to the primary selection criteria of age, gender and location, supplementary criteria of employment status, language and occupation were used to optimise diversity and inclusivity of membership.

Based on this approach, the 99 members of the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use included four people with disabilities, people from a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds, and 15 non-nationals including 11 whose first language was not English. Languages spoken included Latvian, Romanian, Polish, Mandarin, Arabic, and French.

Ireland’s experience of Citizens’ Assemblies began with what was known as the Convention on the Constitution, which ran from 2013-2014. This was followed by a series of Citizens’ Assemblies. So far[1], there have been a total of six Citizens’ Assemblies (including the Constitutional Convention).

The issues they have looked at include the following:

Convention on the Constitution (2013 – 2014)

The Convention on the Constitution (2013 – 2014) was established by the Oireachtas in 2012, and considered the following issues:

• Reducing the Voting Age and the Presidential Term
• Role of Women and Women in Politics
• Same Sex Marriage
• Electoral Reform
• Blasphemy
• Amending the Constitution to give citizens resident outside the State the right to vote in Presidential elections
• Dáil Reform
• Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

Citizens’ Assembly (2016 – 2018)

The Citizens’ Assembly (2016 – 2018) was established by the Oireachtas in July 2016, and asked to consider the following issues:

• The Eighth Amendment of the Constitution
• How we best respond to the challenges and opportunities of an ageing population
• How the State can make Ireland a leader in tackling climate change
• The manner in which referenda are held
• Fixed Term Parliament

1.3        Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality (2020 – 2021)

The Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality (2020 – 2021) was established by the Oireachtas in July 2019, with a Terms of Reference asking it to “make recommendations to the Oireachtas to advance gender equality”.

Issues considered by the Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality included:

• challenge the remaining barriers and social norms and attitudes that facilitate gender discrimination towards girls and boys, women and men;
• identify and dismantle economic and salary norms that result in gender inequalities, and reassess the economic value placed on work traditionally held by women;
• in particular, seek to ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in the workplace, politics and public life;
• recognise the importance of early years parental care and seek to facilitate greater work-life balance;
• examine the social responsibility of care and women and men’s co-responsibility for care, especially within the family; and –
• scrutinise the structural pay inequalities that result in women being disproportionately represented in low pay sectors.

1.4        Dublin Citizens’ Assembly (2022)

The Dublin Citizens’ Assembly was established by the Oireachtas in February 2022, with Terms of Reference asking it to: “consider the type of directly elected mayor and local government structures best suited for Dublin, and to bring forward proposals in that regard.”

Issues considered by the Dublin Citizens’ Assembly included:

• the strengths and weaknesses of the current model of local government in Dublin;
• the potential benefits, risks, challenges and opportunities associated with a directly elected Mayor for Dublin;
• what functions could be transferred from central government to regional or local government in Dublin, and how this should be funded;
• the appropriate structure for local and regional government, councils and authorities, looking at models in other capital cities (e.g. a single elected Dublin authority with a mayor and no local councils, a two-tier structure like London or Paris with a mayor, regional assembly and local or borough councils, or a mayoral structure like Greater Manchester with a ‘super’ mayor sitting above the existing local authorities);
• the perspectives of the general public, representative groups, advocacy groups, the sitting Councillors of the four local authorities, the Dublin Teachtaí Dála and Members of the European Parliament, local authority senior officials and staff, experts and policy makers.

1.5        Citizens’ Assembly on Biodiversity Loss (2022 -2023)

The Citizens’ Assembly on Biodiversity Loss was established by the Oireachtas in February 2022, with its Terms of Reference asking it to “examine how the State can improve its response to the issue of biodiversity loss, and to bring forward proposals in that regard.”

Issues considered by the Citizens’ Assembly on Biodiversity Loss include:

• the international, European, national, regional and local dimensions to the biodiversity emergency;
• the threats presented by biodiversity loss and the opportunities to reverse this loss;
• the main drivers of biodiversity loss, their impacts and the opportunity of addressing these drivers;
• the perspectives of the general public, representative groups, advocacy groups, experts and policy makers on biodiversity loss, and its impact on Ireland;
• opportunities to develop greater policy coherence and strategic synergies between biodiversity policy and other policy priorities including, but not limited to, economic development, climate action, sustainable development, agriculture and tourism;
• opportunities to promote greater public understanding of, and support for, urgent action in response to the biodiversity emergency; and
• opportunities to improve the State’s response to the challenge of biodiversity loss, how that response can best be resourced and implemented in a strategic and coordinated manner, and how progress can be measured.

1.6        Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use (2023)

The Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use was established by the Oireachtas in February 2023, with a Terms of Reference asking it to “consider the legislative, policy and operational changes the State could make to significantly reduce the harmful impacts of illicit drugs on individuals, families, communities and wider society, and to bring forward recommendations in this regard”:

Issues considered by the Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use included:

• the drivers, prevalence, attitudes and trends in relation to drugs use in Irish society;
• the harmful impacts of drugs use on individuals, families, communities and wider society;
• best practice in promoting and supporting rehabilitation and recovery from drug addiction;
• the lived experience of young people and adults affected by drugs use, as well as their families and communities;
• international, European Union, national and local perspectives on drugs use;
• the efficacy of current strategic, policy and operational responses to drugs use;
• international best practice and practical case studies in relation to reducing supply, demand and harm, and increasing resilience, health and well-being; and
• the opportunities and challenges, in an Irish context, of reforming legislation, strategy, policy and operational responses to drugs use, taking into consideration the implications for the health, criminal justice and education systems.

[1] Up to October 2024

The Guiding Principles evolve and change for each Citizens’ Assembly. The most recent Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use had the following Guiding Principles:

1. Openness

The Citizens’ Assembly will operate in a spirit of openness. Plenary meetings will be livestreamed on www.citizensassembly.ie, as well as recorded and available after the meeting. Documentation including submissions, speeches and presentations will be published on the website.

2. Balance

It is important that the Assembly hears a diverse and balanced range of viewpoints during the course of proceedings.

3. Transparency

Contributors including speakers, presenters and members of advisory support groups, and contractors, shall disclose any roles, associations or positions that might give rise to an actual or perceived conflict of interest.

4. Equality of voice

Each member will have fair and proportionate opportunity to voice their opinions at plenary session or roundtable discussions.

5. Respect

Members will respect each other’s opinions and ensure that everyone feels free to express their views without fear of personal attack or criticism.

6. Privacy and Confidentiality

Members are entitled to privacy and confidentiality during their involvement in the Citizens’ Assembly. Any effort to lobby or otherwise pressure members will not be tolerated.

7. Inclusivity

The Citizens’ Assembly welcomes engagement from all sections of society and all stakeholders on issues within the remit of the Assembly.

8. Collegiality

Members will work in a spirit of collegiality, with the aim of formulating and agreeing recommendations in a democratic manner.

9. Professionalism

The Secretariat and contracted service providers shall act at all times with professionalism, respecting the guiding principles of the Citizens’ Assembly.

The rules and procedures evolve and change for each Citizens’ Assembly. The most recent Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use had the following rules and procedures:

1. Timing, Frequency and Openness of meetings

Meetings of the Assembly will generally take place at weekends (Saturdays and Sundays). Full details of the dates for meetings are available on www.citizensassembly.ie. Members of the public will not have access to the meeting venue, but plenary sessions will be livestreamed at www.citizensassembly.ie, and recordings of all plenary sessions and presentations will be available online.

2. Role of the Chairperson

The Chairperson, as the sole judge of order, shall be responsible for the smooth running of Assembly meetings, and where appropriate shall make recommendations to the Assembly on the management of its business in accordance with the Terms of Reference. It is the sole prerogative of the Chairperson to establish whatever advisory groups that he or she deems are needed, and to appoint whichever members to those advisory groups that he or she deems appropriate.

3. Work Programme

The work programme shall be agreed by the Assembly on foot of a proposal by the Chairperson and Secretary. The work programme shall be reviewed regularly, with subsequent changes only taking effect with a broad consensus of members.

4. Steering Group

A Steering Group shall be established to assist the Assembly with planning and operational issues associated with the overall work programme and meeting programmes. The Steering Group shall consist of a sub-group of the members, the Chairperson and the Secretary.

5. Members’ Privacy and Deliberative Freedom

Members of the Citizens’ Assembly are entitled to their privacy, and members’ personal details will be treated in strictest confidence, in accordance with data protection legislation. The Citizens’ Assembly as a whole is entitled to deliberative freedom, such that it can operate without pressure being exerted on it by stakeholders or interest groups. Any individual, organisation or lobby group that contacts, or attempts to contact, a member of the Assembly to seek to influence that member’s views on a particular topic will be automatically excluded from taking part in the proceedings of the Assembly.

6. Debates/speaking arrangements

The format and structure of interventions by members during the meetings shall be determined by the Chair. As a general principle, all contributions by members should be brief, respectful and non-repetitive.

7. Deliberative roundtable discussions

During roundtable discussions, members are encouraged to express their views, deliberate on the issues and request clarifications, if required, from speakers and support groups. The outcome of roundtable discussions can be reflected back to the Assembly during Plenary Sessions. Notes of roundtable discussions will be captured by the notetaker and reported in detail and summary form to the Secretariat, to identify emerging issues and recurring themes. Members will be provided access to the reports of each meeting.

8. Submissions

Submissions received by the Assembly secretariat shall be made available to all members of the Assembly via the www.citizensassembly.ie website.

9. Presentations

Following receipt of submissions, the Assembly may choose to hear oral presentations from any representative group or individual to assist in its deliberations. Invitations shall be issued by the Chairperson on behalf of the Assembly.

10. Voting

Decisions by the Assembly can be taken informally by a show of hands or through formal voting, as appropriate.

Voting shall be by secret ballot. Counting of votes shall be overseen by the Chairperson and Secretary and at least 2 members of the Assembly.

11. Advisory Support Group

The Chair shall establish such advisory and other support groups as are considered necessary and appropriate to assist with the work of the Assembly in terms of preparing information and advice.

12. Accessibility of Services and Information for Persons with Disabilities

The Assembly will ensure that services and information will be accessible to all Members including those with a disability, insofar as is practicable and appropriate.

13. Press and Communications

Accredited members of the media shall be permitted to attend plenary sessions of the Assembly, subject to such terms and conditions as may be laid down by the Assembly. As a general principle, the Chairperson shall act as spokesperson in relation to administrative or procedural matters relating to the work of the Assembly.

14. Media and Public Commentary

Until such time as the work of the Citizens’ Assembly has been completed and its final report published, members of the Assembly and advisory support groups shall refrain from making public comment about the substantive issues under consideration, including to members of the media or on social media platforms. However, public comment on more general issues such as the Assembly process and members’ experiences of being involved in the Assembly, is not subject to the same restrictions.

15. Quality Control and Continuous Improvement

To ensure a high-quality process and to support continuous improvement, members are requested to complete a post-meeting evaluation form following each meeting of the Assembly. Members are encouraged to notify the Secretariat of any issues of concern regarding arrangements for meetings.

No, members do not need any prior knowledge of the issue to take part. Once the process gets underway, members are given extensive assistance in learning about the issues, and are presented with useful information and data from reliable sources.

Everyone who is a member of the Citizens’ Assembly brings an important perspective and experience to the discussions, including people who are not familiar with the subject matter to begin with.

Members of the Citizens’ Assembly are not paid, but do receive an honorarium in recognition of their civic contribution. The Chairperson receives a per diem payment.

Accommodation and meals are provided, as well as out-of-pocket travel expenses, and a contribution towards childcare costs, where applicable.

We are committed to making the Citizens’ Assembly as accessible as possible, and will do our best to accommodate people if they have any particular accessibility, mobility, dietary or other needs that need to be taken into consideration.

In Ireland, membership of Citizens’ Assemblies is restricted to those over the age of 18.

While young people under the age of 18 are precluded from membership, it is important that young people’s perspectives are factored into the deliberations. The Citizens’ Assembly works to ensure that the voices of young people are factored into proceedings in a meaningful way.

Examples of how young people have been involved in recent Citizens’ Assemblies include:

• Hearing from representative of the Children and Young People’s Assembly on Biodiversity Loss (https://youtu.be/Xa0MKMzeyLg)
• Considering the Report on the Consultations with Young People for the Citizens Assembly on Drugs Use (https://citizensassembly.ie/wp-content/uploads/CADU566_FB.pdf)

Generally speaking, each Citizens’ Assembly runs a public consultation process. You or your organisation can get involved by sending in a submission to the consultation process, for consideration by the members of the Assembly.

Yes. The Citizens’ Assembly has a commitment to transparency.

Phase I, the establishment of a Citizens’ Assembly, and the decision about its Terms of Reference, is debated in Dáil and Seanad Éireann, with the proceedings livestreamed and transcribed.

Phase II, the operation of the Citizens’ Assembly, is thoroughly documented in the Citizens’ Assembly report. Plenary Sessions and presentations made at meetings of the Citizens’ Assembly are livestreamed and recorded for posterity on the Citizens’ Assembly website.

All key documentation, including submissions to the public consultation process and presentations made to the members of the Citizens’ Assembly, is published on the Citizens’ Assembly website.

A detailed account of the Citizens’ Assembly proceedings, including thorough information about the voting process and results, is included in the report of the Citizens’ Assembly.

Finally, the responses by both the Oireachtas and Government to the report and recommendations of the Citizens’ Assembly are published, debated in the Oireachtas and put into the public domain.

Yes. An OECD database[1] currently lists 89 examples of Citizens’ Assemblies in countries around the world, and a further 231 cases of citizens’ juries / citizens’ panels. There is a wide range of different approaches to running a Citizens’ Assembly.

[1]https://airtable.com/appP4czQlAU1My2M3/shrX048tmQLl8yzdc/tblrttW98WGpdnX3Y/viwX5ZutDDGdDMEep

Videos showing examples of Citizens’ Assemblies in action include:

• Citizens’ Assembly on Drugs Use: https://youtu.be/SbZpdXXfYI0
• Dublin Citizens’ Assembly: https://youtu.be/6VPlCSZ94qk
• Citizens’ Assembly on Biodiversity Loss: https://youtu.be/z-lmna5OrLs
• Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality: https://youtu.be/vK99oilsSE4